10. Gender and Posttraumatic Stress: s-e-xual Violence as an Explanation for Women’s Increased Risk  x- t4 y. o9 i5 d% d, U  B# b
Lilia M. Cortina, Sheryl Pimlott Kubiak1 I2 b7 k9 o1 v  p' V

/ p% I/ S! b5 p- VWomen are approximately twice as likely as men to develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but the cause of this disparity remains unclear. This study evaluated 2 alternative explanations of gender differences in PTSD, one pointing to an intrinsic vulnerability in women and the other emphasizing s-e-xual violence across the life span. To test these competing theories, the authors analyzed National Violence Against Women Survey data from 591 victims of partner aggression. Results suggested that gender, when considered alone, has a small but significant effect on PTSD symptom severity. However, once models factor in s-e-xual victimization history, the latter replaces gender as a key determinant of PTSD symptoms. These findings argue against theories of “feminine vulnerability,” instead linking PTSD risk to s-e-xually violent situations.  Q, e2 t+ ]' P0 O
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Keywords: posttraumatic stress disorder, gender, s-e-xual assault, partner aggression

11. Orienting and Maintenance of Gaze to Facial Expressions in Social Anxiety
1 p) d0 l. T) ]  {5 b. s" M: YMatthew Garner, Karin Mogg, and Brendan P. Bradley
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In 2 experiments, the authors tested predictions from cognitive models of social anxiety regarding attentional biases for social and nonsocial cues by monitoring eye movements to pictures of faces and objects in high social anxiety (HSA) and low social anxiety (LSA) individuals. Under no-stress conditions (Experiment 1), HSA individuals initially directed their gaze toward neutral faces, relative to objects, more often than did LSA participants. However, under social– evaluative stress (Experiment 2), HSA individuals showed reduced biases in initial orienting and maintenance of gaze on faces (cf. objects) compared with the LSA group. HSA individuals were also relatively quicker to look at emotional faces than neutral faces but looked at emotional faces for less time, compared with LSA individuals, consistent with a vigilant–avoidant pattern of bias.4 T8 n' }$ P9 y' A1 T9 {$ R' j9 a

" T7 V1 p$ y, X5 G* b; g4 ?Keywords: attentional bias, gaze, eye movements, faces, social anxiety

12. Deficits on the Continuous Performance Test Within the Schizophrenia Spectrum and the Mediating Effects of Family History of Schizophrenia
0 x# B3 Z$ {: f$ E7 |4 `' |Matthew T. Avila, Olalla Robles, L. Elliot Hong, Theresa A. Blaxton, Carol S. Myers, Ikwunga Wonodi, James Gold, and Gunvant K. Thaker
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Individuals with schizophrenia spectrum personality disorders (SSPD) and schizophrenia show similar cognitive impairments. The authors examined the contributions of SSPD symptoms and familial risk for schizophrenia to impairments on the Continuous Performance Test—Identical Pairs Version. Participants included 103 schizophrenia patients, 66 first-degree relatives (29 SSPD), and 103 community controls (26 SSPD) screened for family history of psychosis. Patients and SSPD relatives performed significantly worse than non-SSPD relatives and SSPD and non-SSPD community controls. No differences in performance were observed among non-SSPD relatives and SSPD and non-SSPD community controls. Results suggest a continuum in which risk for schizophrenia-related cognitive impairments is highest among patients and SSPD relatives, intermediate among non-SSPD relatives, and lowest among SSPD and non-SSPD community controls. Results suggest that SSPD in the absence of a family history of psychosis may be a phenocopy./ `/ f! U4 O& T! k! m: j
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Keywords: schizophrenia spectrum personality, schizophrenia, Continuous Performance Test, attention, working memory

13. Smooth Pursuit Eye Movement and Schizotypy in the Community
; D- {8 y. ~+ y, Z- CMark F. Lenzenweger, Gillian A. O’Driscoll$ o$ v0 X8 c: ?3 q* u. k* o
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Deficits in smooth pursuit eye movements are well documented in schizophrenia and schizotypic psychopathology. The status of eye tracking dysfunction (ETD) as an endophenotype for schizophrenia liability is relatively robust. However, the relation of ETD to schizophrenia-related deviance in the general population has not been confirmed. This study examined smooth pursuit eye tracking and schizotypal personality features in the general population. Smooth pursuit eye movement and schizotypal features were measured in 300 adult community subjects. The sample included both s-e-xes, subjects with a wide age and educational range, and subjects with no prior history of psychosis. Primary outcome measures were peak gain (eye velocity/target velocity), catch-up saccade rate, and schizotypal feature scores. Total schizotypal features were significantly associated with decreased peak gain and were associated at the trend level with increased catch-up saccade rate. These associations were essentially unchanged after controlling for age, s-e-x, and intellectual level effects. These data confirm a hypothesized association between schizotypal features and poorer eye tracking performance (principally, peak gain) in the general population as well as support the conceptualization of ETD as an endophenotype for schizophrenia liability.
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$ z6 t0 ^2 W6 L# ?Keywords: schizotypy, eye tracking dysfunction, endophenotype, schizotypal, schizophrenia

14. Genetic Influences on the Overlap Between Low IQ and Antisocial Behavior in Young Children
6 ~5 Y( `% D, ]% ^, CKarestan C. Koenen, Avshalom Caspi and Terrie E. Moffitt, Fruhling Rijsdijk and Alan Taylor
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. y( o/ |; u0 iThe well-documented relation between the phenotypes of low IQ and childhood antisocial behavior could be explained by either common genetic influences or environmental influences. These competing explanations were examined through use of the Environmental Risk Longitudinal Twin Study 1994– 1995 cohort (Moffitt & the E-Risk Study Team, 2002) of 1,116 twin pairs and their families. Children’s IQ was assessed via individual testing at age 5 years. Mothers and teachers reported on children’s antisocial behavior at ages 5 and 7 years. Low IQ was related to antisocial behavior at age 5 years and predicted relatively higher antisocial behavior scores at age 7 years when antisocial behavior at age 5 years was controlled. This association was significantly stronger among boys than among girls. Genetic influences common to both phenotypes explained 100% of the low IQ–antisocial behavior relation in boys. Findings suggest that specific candidate genes and neurobiological processes should be tested in relation to both phenotypes.
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' U) {* V/ R6 y) Y$ b( fKeywords: IQ, antisocial behavior, young children, behavior genetics

15. Effects of Comorbid Psychopathy on Criminal Offending and Emotion Processing in Male Offenders With Antisocial Personality Disorder: D" ?6 ?: j% I# ^* l) B7 g0 a+ k
David S. Kosson, Amanda R. Lorenz and Joseph P. Newman- z# |$ z! j# U
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Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and psychopathy are two syndromes with substantial construct validity. To clarify relations between these syndromes, the authors evaluated 3 possibilities: (a) that ASPD with psychopathy and ASPD without psychopathy reflect a common underlying pathophysiology; (b) that ASPD with psychopathy and ASPD without psychopathy identify 2 distinct syndromes, similar in some respects; and (c) that most correlates of ASPD reflect its comorbidity with psychopathy. Participants were 472 incarcerated European American men who met Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (4th ed., American Psychiatric Association, 1994) criteria for ASPD and Psychopathy Checklist criteria for psychopathy, who met the criteria for ASPD but not for psychopathy, or who did not meet diagnostic criteria for either ASPD or psychopathy (controls). Both individuals with ASPD only and those with ASPD and psychopathy were characterized by more criminal activity than were controls. In addition, ASPD with psychopathy was associated with more severe criminal behavior and weaker emotion facilitation than ASPD alone. Group differences in the association between emotion dysfunction and criminal behavior suggest tentatively that ASPD with and ASPD without prominent psychopathic features may be distinct syndromes.: ^) s- C* R; J* a3 A

- x$ m6 v3 g: r+ j9 Y1 TKeywords: psychopathy, antisocial personality disorder, classification, comorbidity

16. Item Response Theory Analysis of Diagnostic Criteria for Alcohol and Cannabis Use Disorders in Adolescents: Implications for DSM–V
/ ^: b" w, n0 Q( c5 E5 m1 {Christopher S. Martin, Tammy Chung, Levent Kirisci, James W. Langenbucher% Z2 T- \& }; G7 R7 `$ p" q

; q3 V6 @7 _9 F6 s4 b- ]Item response theory (IRT) has advantages over classical test theory in evaluating diagnostic criteria. In this study, the authors used IRT to characterize the psychometric properties of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM–IV; American Psychiatric Association, 1994) alcohol and cannabis use disorder symptoms among 472 clinical adolescents. For both substances, DSM–IV symptoms fit a model specifying a unidimensional latent trait of problem severity. Threshold (severity) parameters did not distinguish abuse and dependence symptoms. Abuse symptoms of legal problems and hazardous use, and dependence symptoms of tolerance, unsuccessful attempts to quit, and physical– psychological problems, showed relatively poor discrimination of problem severity. There were gender differences in thresholds for hazardous use, legal problems, and physical–psychological problems. The results illustrate limitations of DSM–IV criteria for alcohol and cannabis use disorders when applied to adolescents. The development process for the fifth edition (DSM–V) should be informed by statistical models such as those used in this study.8 z7 m$ r) y, l) @. t8 I' E
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Keywords: adolescents, substance use disorders, item response theory, DSM–IV, DSM–V

17. Recognition of Facial Affect in Psychopathic Offenders6 x( w0 v& |5 W* M% @
Samantha J. Glass and Joseph P. Newman! k8 p# S' h1 C0 L" V
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The authors examined the reliability of facial affect processing deficits found in psychopathic individuals (R. Blair et al., 2004) and whether they could be modified by attentional set. One hundred eleven offenders, classified using the Psychopathy Checklist—Revised (R. Hare, 2003) and Welsh Anxiety Scale (G. Welsh, 1956), performed a facial affect recognition task under 2 conditions. On the basis of research linking psychopathy, amygdala dysfunction, and deficits in facial affect recognition, the authors predicted that psychopathic offenders would display performance deficits when required to identify the emotional expression of particular faces. In addition, given evidence linking the affective processing deficits in psychopathy to focus of attention, the authors predicted that any deficits in facial affect processing would disappear when participants could anticipate which affective cues would be relevant on a given trial. Contrary to expectation, psychopathic offenders performed as well as controls in both conditions. The authors conclude that the conditions that reveal affective deficits in psychopathic individuals require further specification.
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- V2 @1 f+ l. l9 D. p$ oKeywords: psychopathy, affect, face processing

18. Fear and Pain: Investigating the Interaction Between Aversive States
" O  Q4 K& e! z+ n/ RKevin E. Vowles, Daniel W. McNeil, John T. Sorrell, and Suzanne M. Lawrence
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Pain and fear often co-occur and appear to interact, although the nature and direction of their relation is not clearly delineated. The present study investigates how exposure to the experience of one of these states subsequently affects responding to the other. Pressure stimulation and carbon dioxide-enriched air (CO2) were used to induce pain and fear, respectively, in 48 healthy individuals. The order in which the stimuli were introduced was manipulated, as was the CO2 level. Measures of overt behavior, physiological responding, and self-report were obtained; analyses of stimuli effects generally supported their ability to produce pain or fear. Results indicate that the stimulus rated as the most aversive, the higher level of CO2, led to the highest levels of distressed responding across dependent measures. This pattern was replicated for the stimuli found to be less aversive (i.e., pressure stimulation and low-level CO2, respectively). The authors conclude that fear and pain, in and of themselves, do not dictate the nature of their interaction; the most important factor is how aversive they are perceived to be in relation to one another.
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& ^, t9 B$ \) q; {( C! sKeywords: fear, pain, anxiety, experimental psychopathology, carbon dioxide-enriched air

19. Analgesic Effects of Posthypnotic Suggestions and Virtual Reality Distraction on Thermal Pain
$ }0 g  }$ `! f) g) P0 T' {$ lD. R. Patterson, M. J. Jensen, H. G. Hoffman and A. Garcia Palacios
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3 r6 s- v" C& T4 V6 R9 lThe individual and combined effects of posthypnotic suggestion (PHS) and virtual reality distraction (VRD) on experimentally induced thermal pain were examined using a 2 × 2, between-groups design. After receiving baseline thermal pain, each participant received hypnosis or no hypnosis, followed by VRD or no VRD during another pain stimulus. Consistent with the hypothesis that hypnosis and VRD work via different mechanisms, results show that posthypnotic analgesia was moderated by hypnotizability but VRD analgesia was not. The impact of PHSs for analgesia was specific to high hypnotizables, whereas VRD was effective independent of hypnotizability. Results also show a nonsignificant but predicted pattern for high hypnotizables: Audio hypnosis combined with VRD reduced worst pain 22% more and pain unpleasantness 25% more than did VRD alone. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.( [3 o$ k* p6 H
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Keywords: virtual reality, hypnosis, analgesia, distraction, pain control