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应某位SOP核心的需要，在此整理Princeton University的论文。

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ESSAYS ON SOCIAL IDENTITY,POLITICAL ECONOMY AND CONFLICT
Moses Shayo

Abstract

In this dissertation I explore ways to integrate insights from other social sciences into economics and political economy.

In the first chapter I develop a general framework for incorporating the concept of social identity into economic theory, based on robust empirical results obtained primarily by social psychologists. I …rst o¤er a de…nition of social identity in terms of preferences: an individual is said to identify with a group if she cares about the relative status of that group and wants to resemble its other members. Next, I provide a general description of the process of identi…cation.People are more likely to identify with a group the higher the similarity they perceive between themselves and other group members and the higher the status of that group. Finally, I propose an equilibrium concept where both identities and behavior are endogenously determined. The framework captures major aspects of such phenomena as ingroup bias, cooperation and conformity.

In the second chapter I apply the social identity framework to the political economy of income redistribution, focusing on class and national identities. I then present new empirical evidence that supports the main implications of the model, namely that national identication is more likely among the poor than among the rich; that national identication reduces support for redistribution;and that across democracies there is a strong negative relationship between the prevalence of national identi…cation and the level of redistribution. The model points to national threats and to diversity within the lower class as factors that may reduce redistribution, and suggests the possibility that rising inequality may lead to less demand for redistribution.

In the third chapter I examine whether sociological accounts of the relation between poverty and authoritarianism can help explain the empirical relationship between national income and the risk of civil wars. I show that this cross-country relationship can be partly attributed to popular militarism, and that militarism is in turn robustly related at the individual level to income in a diverse set of countries. Further, I …nd that much of this relationship can be traced to educational attainment.

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THE ROLE OF THE LOCUS COERULEUS IN COGNITIVE CONTROL PUPILLOMETRIC MEASURES AND COMPUTATIONAL MECHANISMS
Mark Samuel Gilzenrat

Abstract

This dissertation addresses the mechanistic role of the noradrenergic brainstem nucleus locus coeruleus (LC) in regulating cognitive control. Results suggest LC plays an integral role in optimizing simple decision-making (in its phasic mode) and regulating task engagement (in transitions between phasic and tonic mode) by dynamically modulating the computational gain of efferent structures (via norepinephrine release) in a temporally adaptive manner. A theory is developed and supported that suggests LC firing mode is driven by online evaluation of task utility—as jointly reflected in measures of conflict and reward value in brain areas reflecting each (anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex, respectively). This account was pursued in a series of pupillometric experiments in humans (Chapter 2) and a number of computational simulations (Chapters 3-6). Pupillometric studies drew on work that suggests LC firing rate is indexed by pupil dynamics. Results showed that pupil dynamics predicted behaviors associated with phasic and tonic LC mode in an auditory target detection task (Experiment 1), and were affected by manipulating task utility in a pitch discrimination task (Experiment 2).
Furthermore, a novel diminishing utility task was presented (Experiment 3) where utility initially increased but diminished as subject performance waned, and subjects were able to overtly disengage at will. Pupil dynamics were of the form predicted by the LC theory,
and reliably predicted periods of engagement and disengagement. Simulation studies proposed an abstracted LC model for implementation in neural network task simulations (Chapter 3). This abstraction was shown to reliably simulate monkey performance, and furthermore provide a novel LC-mediated account of the attentional blink (Chapter 4).Furthermore, an adaptive, transient gain mechanism (such as LC phasic response) was shown to optimize simple decision-making in a multilayered information processing system (e.g., the brain) by expediting information transfer to response areas postdecision,effectively "collapsing" superfluous downstream processing (Chapter 5).Finally, a formal relationship was modeled between conflict (monitored at multiple time scales) and reward that adaptively sets LC firing mode so as to recruit greater control when utility momentarily wanes, but relinquish control (disengage) when low utility persists (Chapter 6).

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FOLK PSYCHOLOGY, FOLK MORALITY
Joshua Michael Knobe

Abstract

The phrase ‘folk psychology’ refers to the ordinary psychology we use to understand each other and ourselves. Although folk psychology may initially seem to be a rather simple sort of thing, it can actually be surprisingly difficult to figure out precisely how it works.

One common view is that folk psychology is best understood as a tool for predicting and explaining behavior. The key idea here is that, if we attribute mental states to other people, we will be able to do a better job of predicting and explaining the behaviors they subsequently perform. Philosophers who hold this view often suggest that folk psychology is something like a scientific theory.

The present dissertation argues for a radically different view. It suggests that folk psychology might be better understood as a kind of multi-purpose tool. Specifically, the claim is that folk psychology should be understood as a tool not only for generating predictions and explanations but also for generating moral judgments.

The dissertation begins with a general theoretical defense of this approach. It then proceeds to apply the approach to three major aspects of folk psychology.

The first of these is people’s ordinary concept of intentional action. A series of experiments demonstrate that people’s attributions of intentional action in particular cases can actually be influenced by their moral beliefs. This result suggests that moral considerations may actually be playing a role in the concept of intentional action itself.

The second aspect is our ordinary practice of reason explanation. Here again, a series of experiments demonstrate the role of moral considerations and thereby suggest that morality may play a role in the relevant concepts.

The final aspect to be considered is people’s practice of causal attribution. Moral considerations have long been known to play a role in this practice; the claim defended here is that this role is best understood in terms of the nature of the concept of causation itself.

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The self-presenter's paradox: Motivated reasoning in information integration
by Weaver, Kim, Ph.D.,
Princeton University, 2003, 57 pages; AAT 3089883

Research on impression formation shows that perceivers evaluate targets with multiple features by combining the features to form coherent and consistent overall judgments. Often, perceivers use weighted averaging strategies to satisfy this goal. Four studies examined whether individuals in self presentational roles anticipate evaluators' impression formation processes when self presenting. Consistent with previous work, participants taking evaluator roles used weighted averaging strategies to integrate information about job candidates (Studies 1-3) and manuscripts (Study 4). In contrast, participants taking self presentational roles failed to anticipate averaging on the part of their audience and, to their detriment, included mildly favorable information when designing portfolios. Study 3 addresses several of the psychological mechanisms that underlie this divergence. Results from Study 4 replicate and extend these findings using experts in the roles. Implications of these results for self presentation and the study of motivated reasoning are discussed.

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Social categories and intergroup preference disputes: The aversion to winner-take-all solutions
by Garcia, Stephen Michael, Ph.D.,
Princeton University, 2002, 75 pages; AAT 3039698

This dissertation demonstrates an aversion to winner-take-all solutions (e.g., coin toss, arbiter) in intergroup preference disputes where the two groups at hand come from different social categories (inter-category disputes), as opposed to the same social category (intra-category disputes). Moreover, this aversion effect occurs among observers and actual participants alike.

Experiments 1 and 2 provide evidence that observers of inter-category disputes prefer compromise over a coin toss to a greater extent than do observers of intra-category disputes. Experiment 3 builds on this finding and demonstrates this effect even when the groups at hand are not in direct competition with each other. Moreover, Experiment 4 operationalizes an arbiter who categorically decides an outcome as a winner-take-all solution and rules out the possibility that the chance component of a coin toss alone is driving this effect. Experiment 5 demonstrates that the aversion to winner-take-all solutions always transpires in inter-category preference disputes, regardless of whether the preference issue at hand is inconsequential or serious in nature. Experiment 6 uses actual participants to provide compelling evidence that the aversion to winner-take-all solutions in inter-category disputes occurs among observers and actual participants alike. Delving into the psychological circumstances underlying this effect, Experiment 7 reveals the qualitative differences between losing a winner-take-all solution in an inter-category context and losing in an intra-category one. Losses in inter-category disputes, where preferences correlate with social category membership, are more painful "defeats" than losses in intra-category disputes, where both groups share the same social category membership.

This dissertation concludes by discussing the implications of this aversion effect on the perception and practice of justice in conflict resolution. It also underscores the merits of the Common Ingroup Identity Model and discusses theoretical extensions and future research directions of the aversion to winner-take-all effect.

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Cholinergic systems in nucleus accumbens are involved in behavioral depression and appetite suppression
by Chau, David Thanh, Ph.D.,
Princeton University, 2001, 196 pages; AAT 3021967

The goal of this research was to discover the role of acetylcholine (ACh) and its receptors in the nucleus accumbens as part of a system that controls motivation. Dopamine is well known to promote incentive motivation in this system. The present studies are designed around the hypothesis that ACh does the opposite. The current study used the Porsolt swim test to determine whether this cholinergic system may be involved in behavioral depression (Experiment I), and whether it is a site of action for fluoxetine (Exp. II). The conditioned taste aversion paradigm was used to test for possible aversive effects of accumbens ACh (Exp. III). Lastly, the role of cholinergic interneurons in appetite suppression was tested using the selective ACh toxin, 192-IgG-saporin (Exp. IV). All subjects were either male or female Sprague-Dawley rats.

In Exp. I, injections of the M 1 receptor agonists into the nucleus accumbens decreased swimming-escape behavior in the swim test, whereas, the M 1 antagonists did the opposite without significantly affecting locomotor activity. The anti-immobility effect was not elicited in the dorsal striatum. In Exp. II, fluoxetine infused in the accumbens lowered extracellular ACh and simultaneously increased escape swimming. Daily, two-week treatment with a low dose of fluoxetine (5 mg/kg, s.c.) had no effect on ACh on the first day, as designed, but it significantly lowered extracellular ACh, relative to control tests with saline, at the end of 2 wks treatment. In Exp. III, neostigmine injected locally in the accumbens created a conditioned taste aversion (CTA). This effect was not mediated by M 1 receptors because the M 1 antagonist pirenzepine did not block it, and the M 1 agonist McN-A343 alone did not cause a CTA. Finally in Exp. IV, 192-IgG-saporin transiently increased food intake and body weight.

Taken together, the results suggest that ACh interneurons and M 1 receptors in the nucleus accumbens are involved in the inhibition of behavior in the swim test, and are down-stream targets for fluoxetine. Via a different receptor system, accumbens ACh may also be important in the suppression of eating.

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The role of oculomotor mechanisms in the control of spatial attention
by Fallah, Mazyar, Ph.D.,
Princeton University, 2001, 119 pages; AAT 3007213

Spatial attention is the ability to preferentially process one portion of the visual field without moving the eyes. The neural mechanisms underlying spatial attention are currently unknown. Imaging studies, however, have shown a fronto-parietal network activated during spatial attention tasks. One common feature of these activated areas is that each is also involved in the control of eye movements.

We set out to directly test the relationship between oculomotor mechanisms and spatial attention, by electrically stimulating neurons in the frontal eye fields (FEF), a cortical area in the frontal lobe, and measuring its effects on spatial attention. Electrical stimulation of a specific site in FEF can initiate saccadic eye movements. The termination points of the stimulation evoked saccades cluster within a region of the visual field, called the motor field of the site. The psychophysical threshold for detecting a transient luminance decrement in a visual target was measured with and without microstimulation at currents below the levels that initiate saccades.

The results showed that subthreshold stimulation of a specific site within FEF significantly improved the monkeys' ability to detect a transient luminance decrement change when the target was placed within the site's motor field. By contrast, when the target was placed outside of the motor field, stimulation did not improve the thresholds for detection. Thus, there was a spatial extent to the facilitation effect of microstimulation.

There was also a temporal extent to the effect of microstimulation on spatial attention. When the microstimulation occurred within 175 ms prior to the luminance decrement, facilitation was observed inside, but not outside, the motor field. In contrast, at longer temporal intervals, there was no effect of microstimulation either inside or outside the motor field.

In summary, the results show that oculomotor mechanisms can modulate spatial attention. These are the first results to show a causal relationship between oculomotor mechanisms and spatial attention. Spatial attention mechanisms and oculomotor mechanisms appear to share common neural mechanisms.

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Why do we punish? Retribution, deterrence, and incapacitation as motives for punishment
by Carlsmith, Kevin Merrill, Ph.D.,
Princeton University, 2001, 97 pages; AAT 3007200

When a person is unjustly harmed through assault or robbery, people typically experience a strong desire to punish the offender, but why do they do so? From a psychological point of view, what is the source of their motivation, the justification for their behavior? In short, why do people punish?

Classically, there are two broad justifications for the use of punishment. The first perspective, often described as "just deserts," holds that when an individual harms society by violating its rules in some normatively unallowable way, the scales of justice are "out of balance," and sanction against the individual restores this balance. A competing justification stems from utilitarian theory: that punishing an offender reduces the frequency and likelihood of future crime. The two most common versions of utilitarian theory include deterrence and incapacitation. The former holds that the threat of punishment is sufficient to prevent crime, whereas the latter holds that locking up previous offenders is the surest route to prevent future crime.

The present research examines the behavior of ordinary people and explores the motives that underlie their desire to punish. Previous research has shown that when focused on a single case of harm-doing, people are highly sensitive to variation in factors commonly associated with the just deserts perspective (e.g., seriousness of the harm, evoked moral outrage, etc.), but insensitive to factors associated with utilitarian perspectives (e.g., likelihood of recidivism, crime rates, etc.). The current experiments examine the type of information that people freely recruit when faced with the task of sentencing the perpetrator of a harm, and explore the impact that different types of information have on sentence and confidence ratings. Study One demonstrates that information associated with just deserts theory is more relevant than information associated with utilitarian theories; Study Two traces the type of information recruited to sentence a perpetrator, and reveals a preference for just desert information; Study Three concludes by showing that just deserts information increases the participants' confidence in assigning sentences. These results provide converging evidence that when people punish specific harm-doers, they tend to do so on the basis of just desert principles.

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Dopaminergic modulation of serotonin release in the forebrain of behaving rats
by Mendlin, Anna, Ph.D.,
Princeton University, 1999, 107 pages; AAT 9928439

Previous research supports the existence of a functional interaction between central serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA). The majority of studies explored the effects of 5-HT on the dopaminergic system. The present study used in vivo microdialysis in behaving rats to examine dopaminergic modulation of 5-HT neurotransmission under both pharmacological and physiological conditions and to assess the contribution of DA to the activity-related changes in extracellular 5-HT levels. The first part of this study examined the effect of systemic administration of the nonselective DA receptor agonist apomorphine on 5-HT efflux in the corpus striatum and hippocampus. 5-HT output was increased by a moderate dose of apomorphine sufficient to exert a postsynaptic dopaminergic effect, but not by a lower dose that acts preferentially on presynaptic DA receptors. This effect was blocked by a DA D 2  receptor antagonist raclopride, administered either systemically or locally into the corpus striatum, but not by a 5-HT 1A  receptor antagonist WAY-100635, indicating that D 2  receptors, and not 5-HT 1A receptors, mediate the facilitatory effect of apomorphine, and that this effect occurs primarily at the nerve terminal level. The second part of the study examined the effects of D 2  receptor blockade or unilateral DA depletion on physiologically induced increases in extracellular 5-HT levels in the corpus striatum and prefrontal cortex. DA and 5-HT output, as well as behavioral activity, were increased by both mild tail pinch and the light-dark transition. Tail pinch-induced increases in 5-HT levels, but not the accompanying behavioral changes, were blocked by local application of raclopride. Furthermore, raclopride pretreatment disrupted the positive relationship between striatal 5-HT levels and behavioral activity across the light-dark transition. Unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesion of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system also abolished increases in striatal 5-HT output induced by both tail pinch and light-dark transition. Thus, the non-pharmacologically produced increases in the forebrain 5-HT output appear to be largely dependent upon intact local DA neurotransmission, and may be contingent upon corresponding increases in DA output. Taken together, the results of the present study demonstrate that dopaminergic modulation of 5-HT neurotransmission is a robust phenomenon, occurring under a variety of conditions, and widespread in the forebrain.